Naxi (Nakhi) ethnic history traces a people of Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan) linguistic affiliation who primarily inhabit northwestern Yunnan (especially the Lijiang region), with smaller communities in southwestern Sichuan and southeastern Tibet. The official Chinese ethnic classification “Naxi” was formalized in 1954, encompassing groups that historically used various self-names (such as Naxi, Na, Nari/Na-ri, Nahan) and external designations like “Moxie,” “Mosha,” or “Mosuo.” Population is roughly 300,000–320,000.
Origins and Early Migration
Most scholars link the Naxi to the ancient Qiang (proto-Qiang) peoples of the northwestern Chinese highlands (Yellow River–Huangshui / Hehuang region in present-day Gansu and Qinghai). These nomadic or semi-nomadic groups began southward migrations centuries before the Common Era, following river valleys along the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau (the “ethnic corridor”).
Key stages:
- South to the upper Min River, then southwest into the Yalong River basin in western Sichuan.
- Further west and south to the upper Jinsha (Yangtze) River area.
- Settlement in the fertile Lijiang and Baisha basins by the early centuries CE (some accounts place this around the 1st–3rd centuries or earlier).
Archaeological evidence supports long-term presence: “Lijiang Man” fossils (~100,000 years old) indicate early human activity in the basin, while stone-cist tombs and other sites show cultural layers. Many researchers favor a multi-origin model: southward-migrating Qiang groups fused with local indigenous populations (and later absorbed influences from neighboring groups such as Bai, Tibetan, Yi, and Pumi). Some local traditions and alternative theories emphasize stronger indigenous or other eastern components, but the Qiang-migration framework remains dominant.
Historical Chinese records refer to related groups as “Maoniu Yi” (Han dynasty), “Mosha Yi” (Jin), and “Moxie” or “Moxie Man” (Tang onward).
Medieval Period: Kingdoms and Consolidation
From the 6th–13th centuries, Naxi ancestors lived under the successive influence of the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms (centered near Erhai Lake). One Naxi-related polity, the Yuexi Zhao (越析诏), was among the “Six Zhaos” of the Nanzhao era but was eventually absorbed.
By the 10th–13th centuries, agriculture increasingly replaced pastoralism as the economic base in the Lijiang area. Society developed hierarchical structures with emerging local elites.
Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties: The Mu Chieftains
A major turning point came with the Mongol conquest. In 1253, Kublai Khan’s forces moved through the region en route to conquering the Dali Kingdom. Local Naxi leaders submitted, and the Yuan dynasty established Lijiang Prefecture (1278). A local chieftain (ancestor of the Mu line) was appointed hereditary tusi (native official).
Under the Ming dynasty (especially after 1382), the Mu family rose to prominence. The Hongwu Emperor granted the Chinese surname “Mu” (木) to the leader Ajia Ade (thereafter Mu De). The Mu tusi ruled Lijiang as hereditary chieftains for centuries, collecting taxes and tribute for the imperial court while expanding influence northward into Tibetan borderlands (reaching areas of present-day Deqin, Batang, and Markam at their height). They promoted agriculture, handicrafts, trade along the Tea Horse Road, and cultural synthesis—patronizing Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Confucian learning, and local Dongba traditions. Baisha served as an early political and ritual center; Lijiang Old Town later flourished.
The Mu era (Yuan–early Qing) is often viewed as a golden age of Naxi political autonomy and cultural flourishing under imperial suzerainty.
In 1723, the Qing Yongzheng Emperor implemented the gaitu guiliu policy (“replacing native chiefs with circulating officials”). Hereditary Mu rule ended; the family retained a lesser administrative title but lost real power. Direct Qing administration accelerated Han Chinese cultural and economic influence, land commodification, and social change.
Modern Era
In the Republican period and after 1949, the Naxi were integrated into the modern Chinese state. The 1954 ethnic identification confirmed the unified “Naxi” nationality. Land reform, collectivization, and the Cultural Revolution disrupted traditional practices (including Dongba religion), but post-1978 reforms brought cultural revival, tourism centered on Lijiang Old Town (UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997), and renewed interest in Dongba heritage.
Today the Naxi maintain a distinct identity while participating fully in broader Chinese society. Lijiang remains their cultural heartland, known for its architecture, Naxi ancient music, Dongba culture, and the living memory of Mu rule and ancestral migration myths preserved in Dongba scriptures.
Key Themes in Naxi Historical Memory
Dongba texts emphasize ancestral migrations from the north, the unity of related groups, and the half-brother relationship between humans and nature spirits—reflecting both historical movement and ecological worldview. The Mu family’s genealogies blend legendary origins with documented service to successive dynasties.
The Naxi story is one of adaptation: from highland pastoralists to settled agriculturalists and traders at a cultural crossroads between Chinese, Tibetan, and Southeast Asian influences, while preserving a unique indigenous religious and literary tradition.
